Research Topics

• Molecular, Cellular and Tissue Engineering

Education

• Ph.D., Mechanical Engineering, University of California-Berkeley, 2000
• M.S. Mech. Eng. Rochester Institute of Technology 1994
• B.S. Mech. Eng. Cornell University 1987

Academic Positions

• Faculty Affiliate, Co-Course Director, Clinical Neuroscience, Carle Illinois College of Medicine, 03/17 – present
• Visiting Affiliate Faculty, Prosthetics & Orthotics Program, School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, January 2017-May 2017
• Associate Head for Undergraduate Programs, Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, UIUC, August 16, 2015-date
• Professor, Information Trust Institute, UIUC, August 16, 2015-date
• Professor, Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, UIUC, August 16, 2015-date
• Faculty Affiliate, Beckman Institute, UIUC, February 2014-date
• Faculty Affiliate, Neuroscience Program, UIUC, March 2011-date
• Faculty Affiliate, NSF IGERT Program in Neuroengineering, UIUC, May 2010-date
• Associate Professor, Information Trust Institute, UIUC, November 16, 2011-August 16, 2015
• Research Associate Professor, Information Trust Institute, UIUC, August 16, 2009-November 15, 2011
• Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, UIUC, August 16, 2009-August 16, 2015
• Faculty Affiliate, Center on Health, Aging and Disability, UIUC, 2008-date
• Research Assistant Professor, Information Trust Institute, UIUC, November 2006 - August 16, 2009
• Faculty Affiliate, Center for Autonomous Engineering Systems and Robotics (CAESAR), November 2006-date
• Faculty Affiliate, Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, UIUC, August 16, 2005-date
• Faculty Affiliate, Bioengineering Program, UIUC, October 31, 2002-date
• Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, UIUC, July 21, 2002-August 15, 2009
• Postdoctoral Fellow, Boston University and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, April 2000-June 2002

For more information

• Human Dynamics and Controls Lab

Research Topics

• Molecular, Cellular and Tissue Engineering

Research Interests

• Powered orthoses (not prostheses). Exoskeletons
• Assistive device development: Utilizing fluid power (pneumatic/hydraulics), soft robotics, mechatronics
• Locomotion biomechanics: Focusing on mobility: gait, balance, wheelchair propulsion

Research Statement

I direct the Human Dynamics and Controls Laboratory (HDCL) in the Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering. Our research group uses methods from design, control theory, mechatronics, pneumatics and soft robotics, musculoskeletal biomechanics, and movement analysis. The HDCL focuses on investigating and improving movement control and function through two main areas: assistive device development and locomotion biomechanics. The HDCL’s interest in assistive device development stems from a desire to improve function and the quality of life of persons with disability. To address these areas, we have been involved in the development of pneumatically powered orthotic devices for the upper and lower extremities and multi-speed wheel systems for manual wheelchairs in conjunction with IntelliWheels, Inc., a local start-up.

Articles in Conference Proceedings

• Jahanian, O., Gaglio, A., Muqeet, V., Schorenberg, A., Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T., Slavens, B.A., "Hand-rim Biomechanics of Geared Manual Wheelchair Mobility" Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society of North America (RESNA) 2018 Annual Conference, Arlington, VA, July 13 - 15, 2018. Student Scientific Paper Winner
• Wang, Z. and Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T. “Minimum Sensor Configuration for Gait Event Detection for a Portable Powered Ankle-Foot Orthosis,” 8th World Congress of Biomechanics, Dublin, Ireland, July 8-12, 2018.
• Hernandez, M E., Sowers, R., Thompson, N., Krishnan, G., Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T., “Body-in-the-loop control of soft robotic exoskeletons during virtual manual labor tasks”, 2018 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Brisbane, Australia, May 21-25, 2018
• Thompson, N., Zhang, X., Ayala, F., Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T., Krishnan, G. “Augmented Joint Stiffness and Actuation using Architectures of Soft Pneumatic Actuators”, 2018 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Brisbane, Australia, May 21-25, 2018.
• Song, S.Y, Pei, Y., Tippett, S.R., Lamichhane, D., Zallek, C.M., Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T. "Validation of a Wearable Position, Velocity, and Resistance Meter for Assessing Spasticity and Rigidity", Design of Medical Devices Conference, Minneapolis, MN, April 10-12, 2018.
• Pei, Y., Ewoldt, R.H., Zallek, C.M., Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T. “Revised Design of a Passive Hydraulic Training Simulator of Biceps Spasticity”, Design of Medical Devices Conference, Minneapolis, MN, April 10-12, 2018.
• Garag, P., Chen, A., McDonagh, D., Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T. “Design and Evaluation of the PosturSense Cushion”, Design of Medical Devices Conference, Minneapolis, MN, April 10-12, 2018.
• Xiao, C., Jahanian, O., Slavens, B., Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T. "Biomechanical Evaluation of a Pneumatic Sleeve Orthosis for Lofstrand Crutch-Assisted Gait", 41st American Society of Biomechanics Annual Meeting, Boulder, CO, August 8-11, 2017.
• Gaglio, A., S. Daigle, E. Gacek, O. Jahanian, B. Slavens, I. Rice, and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Validation of an Instrumented Wheelchair Hand Rim,” Design of Medical Devices Conference, Minneapolis, MN, April 11-13, 2017.
• Song, S.Y., Y. Pei, J. Liang, and E.T.Hsiao-Wecksler, “Design of a Portable Position, Velocity, and Resistance Meter (PVRM) for Convenient Clinical Evaluation of Spasticity or Rigidity,” Design of Medical Devices Conference, Minneapolis, MN, April 11-13, 2017.
• Singh, G., C. Xiao, E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, and G. Krishnan, “Design and Analysis of Soft Pneumatic Sleeve for Arm Orthosis,” ASME 2016 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference, IDETC /CIEC 2016, Charlotte, North Carolina, August 21-24, 2016.
• Wang, Z. and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Design of a Compact High Torque Actuation System for Portable Powered Ankle-Foot Orthosis,” Design of Medical Devices Conference, Minneapolis, MN, April 11-14, 2016.
• Islam, M. and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Developing a Classification Algorithm for Plantarflexor Actuation Timing of a Powered Ankle-Foot Orthosis,” Design of Medical Devices Conference, Minneapolis, MN, April 11-14, 2016.
• Islam, M., M.T. Hagan, and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Gait State Estimation for Powered Ankle Orthosis using Modified Fractional Timing and Artificial Neural Network,” Design of Medical Devices Conference, Minneapolis, MN, April 11-14, 2016.

Selected Articles in Journals

• Petrucci, M.N., DiBerardino, L.A., MacKinnon, C.D. and Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T. “A Neuromechanical Model of Reduced Dorsiflexor Torque During the Anticipatory Postural Adjustments of Gait Initiation”, IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, 26(11):2210-2216, 2018.
• Park, K., Sy, J., Horn, G.P., Kesler, R.M., Petrucci, M.N., Rosengren, K.S., and Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T. “Assessing gait changes in firefighters after firefighting activities and while carrying asymmetric loads”, Applied Ergonomics, 70: 44-50, 2018.
• Singh, G., Xiao, C., Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T., Krishnan, G. “Design and Analysis of Coiled FREE Actuator”, Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, 13(3): 036010, 2018.
• Angelini, M.J. , Kesler, R.M., Petrucci, M.N., Rosengren, K.S., Horn, G.P., and Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T. “Effects of Simulated Firefighting and Asymmetric Load Carriage on Firefighter Obstacle Crossing Performance”, Applied Ergonomics, 70: 59-67, 2018.
• Kesler, R.M., F.F. Bradley, G. Deetjen, M.J. Angelini, M.N.Petrucci, K.S. Rosengren, G.P. Horn, and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Impact of SCBA Size and Firefighting Work Cycle on Firefighter Gait,” Ergonomics, 61(9): 1208-1215, 2018.
• Kesler, R.M., G. Deetjen, F.F. Bradley, M.J. Angelini, M.N. Petrucci, K.S. Rosengren, G.P. Horn, and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Impact of SCBA Size and Firefighting Work Cycle on Firefighter Functional Balance,” Applied Ergonomics, 69: 112-119, 2018.
• Boes, M.K., R.E. Bollaert, R.M. Kesler, Y.C. Learmonth, M. Islam, M.N. Petrucci, R.W. Motl, and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Six-minute walk performance in persons with multiple sclerosis while using passive or powered ankle-foot orthoses”, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation, 99(3): 484-490, 2018.
• Kesler, R.M., I. Ensari, R.E. Klaren, R.W. Motl, E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, K.S. Rosengren, B. Fernhall, D.L. Smith, and G.P. Horn, “Physiological response to firefighting activities of various work cycles using extended duration and prototype SCBA”, Ergonomics, 61(3): 390-403, 2018.
• Kesler, R.M., A.E. Klieger, M.K. Boes, E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, R.E. Klaren, Y. Learmonth, R.W. Motl, and G.P. Horn, “Egress Efficacy of Persons with Multiple Sclerosis During Simulated Evacuations”, Fire Technology, July 21, 53(6): 2007-2021, 2017.
• Islam, M. and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Detection of Gait Modes Using an Artificial Neural Network during Walking with a Powered Ankle-Foot Orthosis,” Journal of Biophysics, vol. 2016, Article ID 7984157, 9 pages, 2016.
• Helwig, N.E., K.A. Shorter, P. Ma, and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, "Smoothing spline analysis of variance models: A new tool for the analysis of cyclic biomechanical data," Journal of Biomechanics, 49(14): 3216-3222, 2016.
• Lung, C.W., E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, S. Burns, F. Lin, and Y.K. Jan, “Quantifying dynamic changes in plantar pressure gradient in diabetics with peripheral neuropathy,” Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 4, 54 (9 pages), 2016.
• Park, K., R. Roemmich, J. Elrod, C. Hass, and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, "Effects of aging and Parkinson’s disease on joint coupling, symmetry, complexity and variability of lower limb movements during gait,” Clinical Biomechanics, 33:92-97, 2016.
• Petrucci, M.N., G.P. Horn, K.S. Rosengren, and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Inaccuracy of Affordance Judgments for Firefighters Wearing Protective Gear,” Ecological Psychology, 28( 2): 108–126, 2016.
• Kesler, R.M., G.P. Horn, K.S. Rosengren, and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Analysis of Foot Clearance in Firefighters during Ascent and Descent of Stairs,” Applied Ergonomics, 52: 18–23, January 2016.
• Sosnoff, J.J., I.M. Rice, E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, I.M.K. Hsu, C. Jayaraman, and Y. Moon, “Variability in Wheelchair Propulsion: A New Window into an Old Problem,” Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 27 July 2015.
• Horn, G.P., R.M. Kesler, R.M. Motl, E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, R.E. Klaren, I. Ensari, and K.S. Rosengren, “Physiological Reponses to Firefighter Exercise Protocols in Varying Environments,” Ergonomics, Published online: 19 Jan, 2015.
• Hur, P., K. Park, K. S. Rosengren, G. P. Horn, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, "Effects of Air Bottle Design on Postural Control of Firefighters," Applied Ergonomics, December 4, 2014 (online published), to appear: 48 (May): 49-55, 2015.
• Kesler, R.M., E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, R.M. Motl, R.E. Klaren, I. Ensari, and G.P. Horn, “A Modified SCBA Facepiece for Accurate Metabolic Data Collection from Firefighters,” Ergonomics, October 17, 2014 (online published). 58(1): 148-159, 2015.
• Jayaraman, C., Y. Moon, I.M. Rice, E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, C.L. Beck, and J.J. Sosnoff, “Shoulder pain and cycle to cycle kinematic spatial variability during recovery phase in manual wheelchair users: A pilot investigation,” PLOS one. March 10, 2014.
• Rosengren, K.S., E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, and G.P. Horn, “Fighting fires without falling: Effects of equipment design and fatigue on firefighters balance and gait,” Ecological Psychology, 26(1-2): 167-175, 2014.
• Rice, I.M., C. Jayaraman, E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, and J.J. Sosnoff, "Relationship Between Shoulder Pain and Kinetic and Temporal-Spatial Variability in Wheelchair Users," Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 95(4): 699–704, 2014.
• Hur, P., K.S. Rosengren, G.P. Horn, D. Smith, and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, "Effect of protective clothing and fatigue on functional balance of firefighters," Journal of Ergonomics, S2: 004, 2013.
• Moon, Y., C. Jayaraman, M.K. Hsu, I.M. Rice, E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, and J.J. Sosnoff, "Variability of peak shoulder force during wheelchair propulsion in manual wheelchair users with and without shoulder pain," Clinical Biomechanics, 28(9-10): 967-972, 2013.
• Socie, M.J., B.M. Sandroff, J.H. Pula, E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, R.W. Motl, and J.J. Sosnoff, “Footfall placement variability and falls in multiple sclerosis,” Annals of Biomedical Engineering, 41(8): 1740–1747, 2013.
• Shorter, K.A., J. Xia, E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, W. K. Durfee, and G. F. Kogler, “Technologies for Powered Ankle Foot Orthotic Systems: Possibilities and Challenges,” IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 18(1): 377-347, 2013.
• Ragetly, C.A., D. J. Griffon, L. M. Klump, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Kinetic and Kinematic Analysis of the Pelvic Limbs in Labrador Retrievers Predisposed or at a Low Risk for Cranial Cruciate Ligament Disease,” Veterinary Surgery, Nov; 41(8):973-82, 2012.
• Chin, R., E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, and E. Loth, "Fluid-Power Harvesting by Under-Foot Bellows During Human Gait," Journal of Fluids Engineering, 134(8): 081101, 2012. (Number 1 Most Downloaded Article in JFE for August 2012)
• Ragetly, C. A., D. J. Griffon, M. K. I. Hsu, L. M. Klump, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Kinetic and Kinematic Analysis of the Hind Limbs during Treadmill Trotting Gait in Healthy Dogs: Comparison Between Labrador Retrievers Predisposed or Not for Cranial Cruciate Ligament Disease,” American Journal of Veterinary Research, Aug;73(8):1171-7, 2012.
• Shorter, K.A., Y. Li, T.Bretl, and E.T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Modeling, Control, and Analysis of a Robotic Assist Device”, Mechatronics, , 22(8): 1067-1077, 2012.
• Hur, P., K. A. Shorter, P. Mehta, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Invariant Density Analysis: Modeling and Analysis of the Postural Control System using Markov Chains,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 59(4): 1094-1100, 2012.
• Park, K, H. Dankowicz, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Characterization of Spatiotemporally Complex Gait Patterns using Cross-correlation Signatures,” Gait & Posture, 36(1): 120-126, 2012.
• DiBerardino, L., C. A. Ragetly, D. J. Griffon, S. Hong, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Improving Regions of Deviation Gait Symmetry Analysis with Point-wise T-tests,” Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 28(2), 210-214, 2012.
• Li, Y., A. Becker, K. A. Shorter, T. Bretl, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Estimating System State During Human Walking with a Powered Ankle-Foot Orthosis,” IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 16(5):835-844, 2011.
• Shorter, K.A., G. F. Kogler, E. Loth, W. K. Durfee, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “A Portable Powered Ankle-Foot-Orthosis for Rehabilitation,” Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development, 48(4): 459-472, 2011. doi:10.1682/JRRD.2010.04.0054.
• Park, K., K. S. Rosengren, G. P. Horn, D. L. Smith, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Assessing Gait Changes due to Fatigue and Protective Clothing,” Safety Science, 49(5): 719-726, 2011.
• Helwig, N.E., S. Hong, E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, and J. D. Polk, "Methods to Temporally Align Gait Cycle Data," Journal of Biomechanics, 44:561-566, 2011.
• Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T., J. D. Polk, K. S. Rosengren, J. J. Sosnoff, and S. Hong, “A Review of New Analytic Techniques for Quantifying Symmetry in Locomotion,” Symmetry, 2(2): 1135-1155, 2010.
• Park, K., P. Hur, K. S. Rosengren, G. P. Horn, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Effect of Load Carriage on Gait due to Firefighting Air Bottle Configuration,” Ergonomics, 53(7): 882 – 891, 2010.
• Hur, P., B. A. Duiser, S. Salapaka, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Measuring Robustness of the Postural Control System to an Impulse Perturbation,” IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, 18(4):461-467, 2010.
• DiBerardino III, L. A., J. D. Polk, K. S. Rosengren, J. B. Spencer-Smith, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, "Quantifying Complexity and Variability in Phase Portraits of Gait," Clinical Biomechanics, 25: 552–556, 2010.
• Ragetly, C. A., D. J. Griffon, A. A. Mostafa, J. E. Thomas, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Inverse Dynamics Analysis of the Hind Limbs in Labrador Retrievers with and without Cranial Cruciate Ligament Disease,” Veterinary Surgery, 39(4), 513-522, 2010.
• Chin, R., E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, E. Loth, G. Kogler, S. Manwaring, K. A. Shorter, S. N. Tyson, and J. N. Gilmer, “A Pneumatic Power Harvesting Ankle-foot Orthosis to Prevent Foot-drop,” Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation, 6:19, June 16, 2009.
• Riemer, R. and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Improving Joint Torque Calculations through a Two-step Optimization Method for Estimating Body Segment Parameters,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering, 131(1): 011007, 2009.
• Riemer, R. and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Improving Joint Torque Calculations: Optimization-based Inverse Dynamics to Reduce the Effect of Motion Errors,” Journal of Biomechanics, 41:7, 1503-1509, 2008.
• Ragetly, C. A., D. J. Griffon, J. E. Thomas, A. A. Mostafa, D. S. Schaeffer, G. J. Pijanowski, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Noninvasive Determination of Body Segment Parameters of the Hind Limb in Labrador Retrievers With and Without Cranial Cruciate Ligament Disease,” American Journal of Veterinary Research, 69:9: 1188-1196, 2008.
• Shorter, K. A, J. D. Polk, K. S. Rosengren, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, "A New Approach for Detecting Asymmetries in Gait," Clinical Biomechanics, 23:4, 459-467, 2008.
• Doyle, R. D., B. G. Ragan, K. Rajendran, K. S. Rosengren, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Generalizability of Stabiliogram Diffusion Analysis of Center of Pressure Measures,” Gait and Posture, 27:2, 223-230, 2008.
• Hsiao-Wecksler, E. T., “Biomechanical and Age-related Differences in Balance Recovery using the Tether-release Method,” Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 18:2, 179-187, 2008.
• Jang, J., K. T. Hsiao, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Balance (Perceived and Actual) and Preferred Stance width during Pregnancy,” Clinical Biomechanics, 23:4, 468-476, 2008.
• Riemer, R., E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, and X. Zhang, “Uncertainties in Inverse Dynamics Solutions: A Comprehensive Analysis and an Application to Gait,” Gait and Posture, 27:4, 578-588, 2008.
• Hsiao-Wecksler, E. T., “Assessing Quiet and Perturbed Balance: A Review,” Japanese Journal of Biomechanics in Sports and Exercise, 11:4, 291-302, 2007.
• Doyle, R. D., E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, B. G. Ragan, and K. S. Rosengren, “Generalizability of Center of Pressure Measures of Quiet Standing,” Gait and Posture, 25:2, 166-171, 2007.
• Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T. and S. N. Robinovitch, “The Effect of Step Length on Young and Elderly Women’s Ability to Recover Balance,” Clinical Biomechanics, 22:5, 574-580, 2007.
• Major, M. J., A. Beaudoin, P. Kurath, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Biomechanics of Aggressive Inline Skating: Landing and Balancing on a Grind Rail,” Journal of Sports Sciences, 25:12, 1411-1422, 2007.
• Ramachandran, A. K., Y. Yang, K. S. Rosengren, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Effect of Tai Chi on Gait and Obstacle Crossing Behaviors in Middle-aged Adults,” Gait and Posture, 26:6, 248-255, 2007.
• Yang, Y., J. V. Verkuilen, K. S. Rosengren, S. A. Grubisich, M. R. Reed, and E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, “Effect of Combined Taiji and Qigong Training on Balance Mechanisms: A Randomized Controlled Trial of Older Adults,” Medical Science Monitor,13:8, 339-348, 2007.
• Hillman, C. H., E. T. Hsiao-Wecksler, and K. S. Rosengren, “Postural and Eye-blink Indices of the Defensive Startle Reflex,” International Journal of Psychophysiology, 55:1, 45-49, 2005.
• Hsiao-Wecksler, E. T., K. Katdare, J. Matson, W. Liu, L. A. Lipsitz, and J. J. Collins, “Predicting the Dynamic Postural Control Response from Quiet-Stance Behavior in Elderly Adults,” Journal of Biomechanics, 36:9, 1327-1333, 2003.
• Hsiao, E. T. and S. N. Robinovitch, “Elderly Subjects’ Ability to Recover Balance with a Single Backward Step Associates with Body Configuration at Step Contact,” Journal of Gerontology: Medical Science, 56A:1, M42-M47, 2001.
• Robinovitch, S. N., E. T. Hsiao, R. Sandler, J. Cortez, and Q. Liu, “Prevention of Falls and Fall-Related Fractures through Biomechanics,” Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 28:2, 74-79, 2000.
• Hsiao, E. T. and S. N. Robinovitch, “Biomechanical Influences on Balance Recovery by Stepping, “Journal of Biomechanics, 32, 1099-1106, 1999.
• Hsiao, E. T. and S. N. Robinovitch, “Common Protective Movements Govern Unexpected Falls from Standing Height,” Journal of Biomechanics, 31, 1-9, 1998.